Digestion and Absorption
• the most important components of our food are
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Vitamins
and minerals also are required in small
quantities.
• Food provides energy and organic materials
for growth and repair of tissues.
• The water we absorb, plays a crucial role
in metabolic processes and also prevents
dehydration of the body.
• Biomacromolecules in food can't be
utilised by our body in their original form have to be de-escalated and converted into simple substances within the digestive
system. This process of conversion of
complex food substances to simple
absorbable forms is named digestion and is
carried out by our system
by mechanical and biochemical methods.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The human system consists of the
alimentary canal and also the associated glands
Alimentary Canal
• The digestive tract begins with an anterior
opening – the mouth, and it opens out
posteriorly through the anus.
• The mouth ends up in the bodily cavity or oral
cavity.
• The mouth includes a number of teeth and a
muscular tongue.
• Each tooth is embedded during a socket of jaw
bone. this sort of attachment is named
Majority of mammals including soul
forms two sets of teeth during their life, a set
of temporary milk or deciduous teeth
replaced by a group of permanent or adult teeth.
This type of dentition is named
• An adult human has 32 permanent teeth
which are of 4 differing types (Heterodont
dentition), namely, incisors (I), canine (C),
premolars (PM) and molars (M).
• Arrangement of teeth in each half the
upper and mandibular bone within the order I, C, PM, M
is represented by a dental formula which in
human is 2123/2123.
• The hard chewing surface of the teeth, made
up of enamel, helpsin the mastication of food
The tongue could be a freely movable muscular
organ attached to the ground of the mouth
by the frenulum.
• The side of the tongue has small
projections called papillae, a number of which
bear taste buds.
• The mouth leads into a brief pharynx
which is a typical passage for food
and air. The oesophagus and also the trachea
(wind pipe) open into the pharynx.
• A cartilaginous flap called epiglottis prevents
the entry of food into the glottis – opening of
the wind pipe – during swallowing.
• The oesophagus could be a thin, long tube which
extends posteriorly passing through the
neck, thorax and diaphragm and ends up in a ‘J’
shaped bag like structure called stomach.
• A muscular sphincter (gastro-oesophageal)
regulates the opening of oesophagus into the
stomach.
• The stomach, located within the upper left
portion of the bodily cavity, has three
major parts – a cardiac portion into which
the oesophagus opens, a fundic region and
pyloric portion which opens into the primary
Part of small intestine
Small intestine is distinguishable into three
regions, a ‘U’ shaped duodenum, a long
coiled middle portion jejunum and a highly
coiled ileum.
• The opening of the stomach into the
duodenum is guarded by the pyloric
sphincter.
• Ileum opens into the massive intestine. It
consists of caecum, colon and rectum.
• Caecum could be a small blind sac which hosts some
symbiotic micro-organisms.
• A narrow finger-like tubular projection, the
vermiform appendix which could be a vestigial
organ, arises from the caecum.
• The caecum opens into the colon. The colon
is divided into three parts – an ascending, a
transverse and a descending part.
• The descending part opens into the rectum
which opens out through the anus.
The wall of digestive tract from
oesophagus to rectum possesses four layers
namely serosa, muscularis, sub-mucosa and
mucosa.
• Serosa is that the outermost layer and is created up
of a skinny mesothelium (epithelium of visceral
organs) with some connective tissues.
• Muscularis is created by smooth muscles
usually arranged into an inner circular and
an outer longitudinal layer. An oblique
muscle layer could also be present in some
regions(Stomach).
• The submucosal layer is created of loose
connective tissues containing nerves, blood
and lymph vessels. In duodenum, glands are
also present in sub-mucosa.
• The innermost layer lining the lumen of the
alimentary canal is that the mucosa. This layerforms irregular folds (rugae) within the stomach
and small finger-like foldings called villi in
the small intestine.
• The cells lining the villi produce numerous
microscopic projections called microvilli
giving a brush border appearance. These
modifications increase the extent
enormously.
• Villi are equipped a network of
capillaries and an oversized channel called the
lacteal.
• Mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which
secrete mucus that help in lubrication.
• Mucosa also forms glands within the stomach
(gastric glands) and crypts in between the
bases of villi within the intestine (crypts of
Lieberkuhn).
All the four layers show modifications in
different parts of the digestive tract.
Digestive Glands
• The digestive glands related to the
alimentary canal include the salivary glands,
the liver and therefore the pancreas.
• Saliva is especially produced by three pairs of
salivary glands, the parotids (cheek), the sub-
maxillary/sub-mandibular (lower jaw) and
the sub-lingual (below the tongue).
• These glands situated just outside the buccal
cavity secrete salivary juice into the buccal
cavity.
• Liver is that the largest gland of the
body weighing about 1.2 to 1.5 kg in an adult
human.
• it's situated within the bodily cavity, just
below the diaphragm and has two lobes.
• The hepatic lobules are the structural and
functional units of liver containing hepatic
cells arranged within the variety of cords.
• Each lobule is roofed by a skinny connective
tissue sheath called the Glisson’s capsule.
• The bile secreted by the hepatic cells passes
through the hepatic ducts and is stored and
concentrated during a thin muscular sac called
the gall bladder.
• The duct of gall bladder (cystic duct) along
with the channel from the liver forms the
common Bile duct.
• The duct and therefore the epithelial duct open
together into the duodenum because the common
hepato-pancreatic duct which is guarded by a
sphincter called the sphincter of Oddi.
• The pancreas could be a compound (both exocrine
and endocrine) elongated organ situated
between the limbs of the ‘U’ shaped
duodenum.
• The exocrine portion secretes an alkaline
pancreatic juice containing enzymes and therefore the
endocrine portion secretes hormones,
DIGESTION OF FOOD
• the method of digestion is accomplished by
mechanical and chemical processes.
• The bodily cavity performs two major
functions, mastication of food and
facilitation of swallowing. The teeth and therefore the
tongue with the assistance ofsaliva masticate and
mix up the food thoroughly.
• Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating and
adhering the masticated food particles into a
BOLUS.
• The bolus is then conveyed into the pharynx
and then into the oesophagus by swallowing
or DEGLUTITION.
• The bolus further passes down through the
oesophagus by successive waves of muscular
contractions called peristalsis.
• The gastro-oesophageal sphincter controls
the passage of food into the stomach.
• The saliva secreted into the mouth
contains electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl–, HCO)
and enzymes, salivary amylase and lysozyme.
• The action of digestion is initiated
in the mouth by the hydrolytic action of
the carbohydrate splitting enzyme, the
salivary amylase.
About 30 per cent of starch is hydrolysed
here by this enzyme (optimum pH 6.8) into a
disaccharide – maltose.
• Lysozyme present in saliva acts as an
antibacterial agent that forestalls infections.
• The mucosa of stomach has gastric glands.
Gastric glands have three major kinds of cells
namely –
• mucus neck cells which secrete mucus;
• peptic or chief cells which secrete the
proenzyme pepsinogen; and
• parietal or oxyntic cells which secrete HCl
and factor (factor essential for
absorption of vitamin B12).
• The stomach stores the food for 4-5 hours.
• The food mixes thoroughly with the acidic
gastric juice of the stomach by the churning
movements of its muscular wall and is termed
the CHYME.
• The proenzyme pepsinogen, on exposure to
hydrochloric acid gets converted into the
active enzyme pepsin, the protease
of the stomach.
• Pepsin converts proteins into proteoses and
peptones (peptides).
The mucus and bicarbonates present within the
gastric juice play a very important role in
lubrication and protection of the mucosal
epithelium from excoriation by the highly
concentrated acid. HCl provides
the acidic pH (pH 1.8) optimal for pepsins.
• Rennin could be a protease found in
gastric juice of infants which helps within the
digestion of milk proteins. Small amounts of
lipases also are secreted by gastric glands.
• Various kinds of movements are generated by
the muscularis layer of the tiny intestine.
• These movements help during a thorough mixing
up of the food with various secretions within the
intestine and thereby facilitate digestion.
• The bile, digestive juice and therefore the intestinal
juice are the secretions released into the
small intestine.
• digestive juice and bile are released
through the hepato-pancreatic duct.
• The digestive juice contains inactive
enzymes – trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen,
procarboxypeptidases, amylases, lipases and
nucleases.
• Trypsinogen is activated by an enzyme,
enterokinase, secreted by the intestinal
mucosa into active trypsin, which successively
activates the opposite enzymes within the pancreatic
juice.
• The bile released into the duodenum
contains bile pigments (bilirubin and bili-
verdin), bile salts, cholesterol and
phospholipids but no enzymes.
• Bile helps in emulsification of fats, i.e.,
breaking down of the fats into very small
micelles. Bile also activates lipases.
• The intestinal mucosal epithelium has goblet
cells which secrete mucus.
• The secretions of the comb border cells of
the mucosa alongwith the secretions of the
goblet cells constitute the secretion or
succus entericus.
• This juice contains a range of enzymes like
disaccharidases (e.g., maltase), dipeptidases,
lipases, nucleosidases, etc.
• The mucus alongwith the bicarbonates from
the pancreas protects the intestinal mucosa
from acid additionally as provide an alkaline
medium (pH 7.8) for enzymatic activities.
• Sub-mucosal glands (Brunner’s glands) also
help during this.
• Proteins, proteoses and peptones (partially
hydrolysed proteins) within the chyme reaching
the intestine are acted upon by the
proteolytic enzymes of digestive juice as
given below:
• Carbohydrates within the chyme are hydrolysed
by pancreatic amylase into disaccharides.
• Fats are lessened by lipases with the assistance
of bile into di-and monoglycerides.
• Nucleases within the digestive juice acts on
nucleic acids to create nucleotides and
nucleosides
• The enzymes within the succus entericus act on
the end products of the above reactions to
form the respective simple absorbable forms.
These final steps in digestion occur very close
to the mucosal epithelial cells of the
intestine. it's temporarily stored within the rectum till
defaecation.
• The activities of the gastro-intestinal tract
are under neural and hormonal control for
proper coordination of various parts.
• The sight, smell and/or the presence of food
in the mouth can stimulate the secretion
of saliva.
• Gastric and intestinal secretions also are,
similarly, stimulated by neural signals.
• The muscular activities of various parts of
the channel may also be moderated
by neural mechanisms, both local and
through CNS.
• Hormonal control of the secretion of
digestive juices is allotted by the local
hormones produced by the gastric and
intestinal mucosa.
ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED PRODUCTS
• Absorption is that the process by which the end products of digestion take place thorugh the intestinal mucosa into the blood or lymph.
• it's allotted by passive, active or
facilitated transport mechanisms.
• Small amounts of monosacharides like
glucose, amino acids and a few of electrolytes
like chloride ions are generally absorbed by
simple diffusion.
The passage of those substances into the
blood depends upon the concentration
gradients. However, a number of the substances
like fructose and a few amino acids are
absorbed with the assistance of the carrier ions
like Na+. This mechanism is named the
facilitated transport.
• Transport of water depends upon the
osmotic gradient.
• transport occurs against the
concentration gradient and hence requires
energy.
• Various nutrients like amino acids,
monosacharides like glucose, electrolytes
like Na+ are absorbed into the blood by this
mechanism.
• Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble,
cannot be absorbed into the blood.
• they're first incorporated into small
droplets called micelles which get in the
intestinal mucosa.
• they're re-formed into very small protein
coated fat globules called the chylomicrons
which are transported into the lymph vessels
(lacteals) within the villi.
• These lymph vessels ultimately release the
absorbed substances into the blood stream.
• Absorption of gear takes place in
different parts of the digestive tube, like
mouth, stomach, bowel and huge
intestine.
• However, maximum absorption occurs within the
The absorbed substances finally reach the
tissues which utilise them for his or her activities.
This process is named assimilation.
• The digestive wastes, solidified into coherent
faeces within the rectum initiate a neural reflex
causing an urge or desire for its removal. The
egestion of faeces to the surface through the
anal opening (defaecation) may be a voluntary
process and is meted out by a mass
peristaltic movement.
DISORDERS OF systema digestorium
• The inflammation of the intestinal tract is that the
most common ailment thanks to bacterial or
viral infections. The infections are
caused by the parasites of the intestine like
tape worm, round worm, thread worm, hook
worm, pin worm, etc.
• Jaundice: The liver is affected, skin and eyes
turn yellow thanks to the deposit of bile
pigments.
• Vomiting: it's the ejection of stomach
contents through the mouth. This reflex
action is controlled by the vomit centre within the
medulla. a sense of nausea precedes
vomiting.
• Diarrhoea: The abnormal frequency of bowel
movement and increased liquidity of the
faecal discharge is thought as diarrhoea. It
reduces the absorption of food.
• Constipation: In constipation, the faeces are
retained within the rectum because the bowel
movements occur irregularly.
• Indigestion: during this condition, the food isn't
properly digested resulting in a sense of
fullness. The causes of indigestion are
inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food
poisoning, over eating, and spicy food
• the most important components of our food are
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Vitamins
and minerals also are required in small
quantities.
• Food provides energy and organic materials
for growth and repair of tissues.
• The water we absorb, plays a crucial role
in metabolic processes and also prevents
dehydration of the body.
• Biomacromolecules in food can't be
utilised by our body in their original form have to be de-escalated and converted into simple substances within the digestive
system. This process of conversion of
complex food substances to simple
absorbable forms is named digestion and is
carried out by our system
by mechanical and biochemical methods.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The human system consists of the
alimentary canal and also the associated glands
Alimentary Canal
• The digestive tract begins with an anterior
opening – the mouth, and it opens out
posteriorly through the anus.
• The mouth ends up in the bodily cavity or oral
cavity.
• The mouth includes a number of teeth and a
muscular tongue.
• Each tooth is embedded during a socket of jaw
bone. this sort of attachment is named
Majority of mammals including soul
forms two sets of teeth during their life, a set
of temporary milk or deciduous teeth
replaced by a group of permanent or adult teeth.
This type of dentition is named
• An adult human has 32 permanent teeth
which are of 4 differing types (Heterodont
dentition), namely, incisors (I), canine (C),
premolars (PM) and molars (M).
• Arrangement of teeth in each half the
upper and mandibular bone within the order I, C, PM, M
is represented by a dental formula which in
human is 2123/2123.
• The hard chewing surface of the teeth, made
up of enamel, helpsin the mastication of food
The tongue could be a freely movable muscular
organ attached to the ground of the mouth
by the frenulum.
• The side of the tongue has small
projections called papillae, a number of which
bear taste buds.
• The mouth leads into a brief pharynx
which is a typical passage for food
and air. The oesophagus and also the trachea
(wind pipe) open into the pharynx.
• A cartilaginous flap called epiglottis prevents
the entry of food into the glottis – opening of
the wind pipe – during swallowing.
• The oesophagus could be a thin, long tube which
extends posteriorly passing through the
neck, thorax and diaphragm and ends up in a ‘J’
shaped bag like structure called stomach.
• A muscular sphincter (gastro-oesophageal)
regulates the opening of oesophagus into the
stomach.
• The stomach, located within the upper left
portion of the bodily cavity, has three
major parts – a cardiac portion into which
the oesophagus opens, a fundic region and
pyloric portion which opens into the primary
Part of small intestine
Small intestine is distinguishable into three
regions, a ‘U’ shaped duodenum, a long
coiled middle portion jejunum and a highly
coiled ileum.
• The opening of the stomach into the
duodenum is guarded by the pyloric
sphincter.
• Ileum opens into the massive intestine. It
consists of caecum, colon and rectum.
• Caecum could be a small blind sac which hosts some
symbiotic micro-organisms.
• A narrow finger-like tubular projection, the
vermiform appendix which could be a vestigial
organ, arises from the caecum.
• The caecum opens into the colon. The colon
is divided into three parts – an ascending, a
transverse and a descending part.
• The descending part opens into the rectum
which opens out through the anus.
The wall of digestive tract from
oesophagus to rectum possesses four layers
namely serosa, muscularis, sub-mucosa and
mucosa.
• Serosa is that the outermost layer and is created up
of a skinny mesothelium (epithelium of visceral
organs) with some connective tissues.
• Muscularis is created by smooth muscles
usually arranged into an inner circular and
an outer longitudinal layer. An oblique
muscle layer could also be present in some
regions(Stomach).
• The submucosal layer is created of loose
connective tissues containing nerves, blood
and lymph vessels. In duodenum, glands are
also present in sub-mucosa.
• The innermost layer lining the lumen of the
alimentary canal is that the mucosa. This layerforms irregular folds (rugae) within the stomach
and small finger-like foldings called villi in
the small intestine.
• The cells lining the villi produce numerous
microscopic projections called microvilli
giving a brush border appearance. These
modifications increase the extent
enormously.
• Villi are equipped a network of
capillaries and an oversized channel called the
lacteal.
• Mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which
secrete mucus that help in lubrication.
• Mucosa also forms glands within the stomach
(gastric glands) and crypts in between the
bases of villi within the intestine (crypts of
Lieberkuhn).
All the four layers show modifications in
different parts of the digestive tract.
Digestive Glands
• The digestive glands related to the
alimentary canal include the salivary glands,
the liver and therefore the pancreas.
• Saliva is especially produced by three pairs of
salivary glands, the parotids (cheek), the sub-
maxillary/sub-mandibular (lower jaw) and
the sub-lingual (below the tongue).
• These glands situated just outside the buccal
cavity secrete salivary juice into the buccal
cavity.
• Liver is that the largest gland of the
body weighing about 1.2 to 1.5 kg in an adult
human.
• it's situated within the bodily cavity, just
below the diaphragm and has two lobes.
• The hepatic lobules are the structural and
functional units of liver containing hepatic
cells arranged within the variety of cords.
• Each lobule is roofed by a skinny connective
tissue sheath called the Glisson’s capsule.
• The bile secreted by the hepatic cells passes
through the hepatic ducts and is stored and
concentrated during a thin muscular sac called
the gall bladder.
• The duct of gall bladder (cystic duct) along
with the channel from the liver forms the
common Bile duct.
• The duct and therefore the epithelial duct open
together into the duodenum because the common
hepato-pancreatic duct which is guarded by a
sphincter called the sphincter of Oddi.
• The pancreas could be a compound (both exocrine
and endocrine) elongated organ situated
between the limbs of the ‘U’ shaped
duodenum.
• The exocrine portion secretes an alkaline
pancreatic juice containing enzymes and therefore the
endocrine portion secretes hormones,
DIGESTION OF FOOD
• the method of digestion is accomplished by
mechanical and chemical processes.
• The bodily cavity performs two major
functions, mastication of food and
facilitation of swallowing. The teeth and therefore the
tongue with the assistance ofsaliva masticate and
mix up the food thoroughly.
• Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating and
adhering the masticated food particles into a
BOLUS.
• The bolus is then conveyed into the pharynx
and then into the oesophagus by swallowing
or DEGLUTITION.
• The bolus further passes down through the
oesophagus by successive waves of muscular
contractions called peristalsis.
• The gastro-oesophageal sphincter controls
the passage of food into the stomach.
• The saliva secreted into the mouth
contains electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl–, HCO)
and enzymes, salivary amylase and lysozyme.
• The action of digestion is initiated
in the mouth by the hydrolytic action of
the carbohydrate splitting enzyme, the
salivary amylase.
About 30 per cent of starch is hydrolysed
here by this enzyme (optimum pH 6.8) into a
disaccharide – maltose.
• Lysozyme present in saliva acts as an
antibacterial agent that forestalls infections.
• The mucosa of stomach has gastric glands.
Gastric glands have three major kinds of cells
namely –
• mucus neck cells which secrete mucus;
• peptic or chief cells which secrete the
proenzyme pepsinogen; and
• parietal or oxyntic cells which secrete HCl
and factor (factor essential for
absorption of vitamin B12).
• The stomach stores the food for 4-5 hours.
• The food mixes thoroughly with the acidic
gastric juice of the stomach by the churning
movements of its muscular wall and is termed
the CHYME.
• The proenzyme pepsinogen, on exposure to
hydrochloric acid gets converted into the
active enzyme pepsin, the protease
of the stomach.
• Pepsin converts proteins into proteoses and
peptones (peptides).
The mucus and bicarbonates present within the
gastric juice play a very important role in
lubrication and protection of the mucosal
epithelium from excoriation by the highly
concentrated acid. HCl provides
the acidic pH (pH 1.8) optimal for pepsins.
• Rennin could be a protease found in
gastric juice of infants which helps within the
digestion of milk proteins. Small amounts of
lipases also are secreted by gastric glands.
• Various kinds of movements are generated by
the muscularis layer of the tiny intestine.
• These movements help during a thorough mixing
up of the food with various secretions within the
intestine and thereby facilitate digestion.
• The bile, digestive juice and therefore the intestinal
juice are the secretions released into the
small intestine.
• digestive juice and bile are released
through the hepato-pancreatic duct.
• The digestive juice contains inactive
enzymes – trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen,
procarboxypeptidases, amylases, lipases and
nucleases.
• Trypsinogen is activated by an enzyme,
enterokinase, secreted by the intestinal
mucosa into active trypsin, which successively
activates the opposite enzymes within the pancreatic
juice.
• The bile released into the duodenum
contains bile pigments (bilirubin and bili-
verdin), bile salts, cholesterol and
phospholipids but no enzymes.
• Bile helps in emulsification of fats, i.e.,
breaking down of the fats into very small
micelles. Bile also activates lipases.
• The intestinal mucosal epithelium has goblet
cells which secrete mucus.
• The secretions of the comb border cells of
the mucosa alongwith the secretions of the
goblet cells constitute the secretion or
succus entericus.
• This juice contains a range of enzymes like
disaccharidases (e.g., maltase), dipeptidases,
lipases, nucleosidases, etc.
• The mucus alongwith the bicarbonates from
the pancreas protects the intestinal mucosa
from acid additionally as provide an alkaline
medium (pH 7.8) for enzymatic activities.
• Sub-mucosal glands (Brunner’s glands) also
help during this.
• Proteins, proteoses and peptones (partially
hydrolysed proteins) within the chyme reaching
the intestine are acted upon by the
proteolytic enzymes of digestive juice as
given below:
• Carbohydrates within the chyme are hydrolysed
by pancreatic amylase into disaccharides.
• Fats are lessened by lipases with the assistance
of bile into di-and monoglycerides.
• Nucleases within the digestive juice acts on
nucleic acids to create nucleotides and
nucleosides
• The enzymes within the succus entericus act on
the end products of the above reactions to
form the respective simple absorbable forms.
These final steps in digestion occur very close
to the mucosal epithelial cells of the
intestine. it's temporarily stored within the rectum till
defaecation.
• The activities of the gastro-intestinal tract
are under neural and hormonal control for
proper coordination of various parts.
• The sight, smell and/or the presence of food
in the mouth can stimulate the secretion
of saliva.
• Gastric and intestinal secretions also are,
similarly, stimulated by neural signals.
• The muscular activities of various parts of
the channel may also be moderated
by neural mechanisms, both local and
through CNS.
• Hormonal control of the secretion of
digestive juices is allotted by the local
hormones produced by the gastric and
intestinal mucosa.
ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED PRODUCTS
• Absorption is that the process by which the end products of digestion take place thorugh the intestinal mucosa into the blood or lymph.
• it's allotted by passive, active or
facilitated transport mechanisms.
• Small amounts of monosacharides like
glucose, amino acids and a few of electrolytes
like chloride ions are generally absorbed by
simple diffusion.
The passage of those substances into the
blood depends upon the concentration
gradients. However, a number of the substances
like fructose and a few amino acids are
absorbed with the assistance of the carrier ions
like Na+. This mechanism is named the
facilitated transport.
• Transport of water depends upon the
osmotic gradient.
• transport occurs against the
concentration gradient and hence requires
energy.
• Various nutrients like amino acids,
monosacharides like glucose, electrolytes
like Na+ are absorbed into the blood by this
mechanism.
• Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble,
cannot be absorbed into the blood.
• they're first incorporated into small
droplets called micelles which get in the
intestinal mucosa.
• they're re-formed into very small protein
coated fat globules called the chylomicrons
which are transported into the lymph vessels
(lacteals) within the villi.
• These lymph vessels ultimately release the
absorbed substances into the blood stream.
• Absorption of gear takes place in
different parts of the digestive tube, like
mouth, stomach, bowel and huge
intestine.
• However, maximum absorption occurs within the
The absorbed substances finally reach the
tissues which utilise them for his or her activities.
This process is named assimilation.
• The digestive wastes, solidified into coherent
faeces within the rectum initiate a neural reflex
causing an urge or desire for its removal. The
egestion of faeces to the surface through the
anal opening (defaecation) may be a voluntary
process and is meted out by a mass
peristaltic movement.
DISORDERS OF systema digestorium
• The inflammation of the intestinal tract is that the
most common ailment thanks to bacterial or
viral infections. The infections are
caused by the parasites of the intestine like
tape worm, round worm, thread worm, hook
worm, pin worm, etc.
• Jaundice: The liver is affected, skin and eyes
turn yellow thanks to the deposit of bile
pigments.
• Vomiting: it's the ejection of stomach
contents through the mouth. This reflex
action is controlled by the vomit centre within the
medulla. a sense of nausea precedes
vomiting.
• Diarrhoea: The abnormal frequency of bowel
movement and increased liquidity of the
faecal discharge is thought as diarrhoea. It
reduces the absorption of food.
• Constipation: In constipation, the faeces are
retained within the rectum because the bowel
movements occur irregularly.
• Indigestion: during this condition, the food isn't
properly digested resulting in a sense of
fullness. The causes of indigestion are
inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food
poisoning, over eating, and spicy food
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